These probabilities are strictly zero or above zero, and therefore, only positive. Unpublished manuscript, University of Utah, Salt Lake City. The two-factor motivation theory, otherwise known as Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory or dual-factor theory, argues that there are separate sets of mutually exclusive factors in the workplace that either cause job satisfaction or dissatisfaction (Herzberg, 1966; 1982; 1991; Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). Sheth (1975) distinguishes five utility needs. Thus, it may be contended that individuals tend to select those product classes that match with their life styles and enable them to express their fundamental values. P. Blau, Exchange and Power in Social Life, New York: Wiley, 1964. We return later to the discussion of how consumer behavior is motivated by perceived inequity or a disparity between the desired and actual state. For a large disparity, a contrast effect is more likely; the disparity is too great to be bridged by the acquisition of a product. Whether or not dissatisfiers outweigh satisfiers predict, according to Herzberg, whether employees find their job interesting and enjoyable as well as their likelihood of remaining at their current jobs (Kacel et al., 2005). 4. Consumer Behaviour Motivation Motivation is one's willingness to pushup efforts to accomplish some specific goals. Murray, however, distinguished a directional aspect and an arousal component that actually kicks the behavior off and that can be motivated in a number of ways. G. B. Graen, "Instrumentality Theory of Work Motivation: Some Experimental Results and Suggested Modifications," Journal of Applied Psychology Monographs, 53(April 1969) part 2. Stated somewhat differently, the tendency to engage in an activity is determined by the desired goal of the action. T. Roselius, "Consumer Rankings of Risk Reduction Methods,'' Journal of Marketing, 35 (January 1971), 56-61. needs theory and Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory (see below). Expectancy-Value Models The basis for expectancy models has been made by Tolman (1932) and Lewin (1938).
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